‌ Explaining the Motivations of the Late Crusades Based on Two Peace Agreements between Mamluk Sultans (Baybars and Qalawun) with the Crusaders (the Knights Hospitallers)

Abstract

In the second half of the 7th century AH, the series of wars between the Mamluks of Egypt against the last Crusader rulers of Syria led to the defeat of the Crusaders and the dismantling of most of their bases in the Levant. During these wars, two peace agreements were reached between the parties. Analyzing the motivations of this period of crusades based on these two peace agreements is the main concern of the present historical-analytical research that besides referring to the text of the peace agreements benefited from other related historical sources and research. These peace agreements were between two Mamluk sultans, i.e., Baybars (658-676 AH) and Qalawun (678-689 AH) with a group of crusaders known as the Knight Hospitallers or Bayt al-Isbataryyah. The agreements have been narrated in <em>Nahayah al-Arab</em> by Nuwayri (677-732 AH) and in a more complete form in <em>Subh al-`A`sha</em> by Qalqashandi (756-791 AH). The findings show that, unlike the first period of the Crusades, where the motivations of the Europeans as the initiators of the war have been narrated to be religious (Christian), in the late period of wars, the motivations were mainly economic (trade), territorial expansionism, and trying to preserve political-military authority.